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Earth, a planet

I INTRODUCTION

From the Earth (planet), one of the nine planets of the solar system, the only planet known to harbor life, and the "home" of humans. From Earth, the space resembles a big blue marble, with swirls of white clouds floating above blue oceans. About 71 percent of the land surface is covered by water, which is essential for life. The rest is land, mainly in the shape of the continents that rise above the oceans.

A land rich in oxygen atmosphere and protection, moderate temperatures, abundant water, and a composition varied chemistry allow the Earth to sustain life, the only planet known to harbor life. The planet is composed of rocks and metals, which are present in the form fluid under the surface. The Apollo 17 spacecraft took this snapshot in 1972 of the Arabian Peninsula, Africa, and Antarctica (the highest part of the white area at the bottom).

From the Earth surface is surrounded by a layer of gases called the atmosphere, which extends upward from surface, thinning slowly into space. Below is a hot interior surface of rocky material and two layers of base metals consisting of nickel and iron Solid and liquid.

Unlike the other planets, Earth has a unique set of features ideal for supporting life as we know it. It is neither too hot, like Mercury, the planet nearest the sun, nor too cold, distant as Mars and the outer planets more distant from Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto small. Earth's atmosphere contains the right amount of gases that trap heat from the sun, resulting in a mild climate suitable for water exists in liquid form. The atmosphere also helps block the sun's radiation would be detrimental to life. The Earth's atmosphere differs from planet Venus, which is otherwise very similar to Earth. Venus is about the same size and mass of the Earth and is neither too close nor too far from the sun. But because that Venus has too much heat-trapping carbon dioxide in its atmosphere, its surface is extremely hot-462 ° C (864 ° F)-hot enough enough to melt lead and too hot for life to exist.

Although Earth is the only planet known to have life, scientists do not rule out the possibility once that life may have existed on other planets or moons, or may exist today in primitive form. Mars, for example, has many features that resemble to river channels, suggesting that liquid water once flowed on its surface. If so, life may also have evolved there, and the proof can be a day in the form of fossils. There is still water on Mars, but that is frozen in ice caps, in permafrost, and possibly on the rocks below the surface.

For thousands of years, humans could only wonder about the Earth and other planets can be observed in the solar system. Many initial ideas-by example, that the earth was a sphere and traveled around the sun-is based on a brilliant reasoning. However, it was only with the development of scientific methods and instruments scientists, especially in the 18th and 19th centuries, human beings began to collect data that could be used to test theories about the Earth and the rest of solar system. By studying fossils found in rock layers, for example, scientists realized that Earth was much older than thought above. And with the use of telescopes, new planets like Uranus, Neptune and Pluto were discovered.

From the Earth to the Moon in the 1960s, people saw for the first time what seemed to Earth from space. This famous picture of Earth was taken by the astronauts of Apollo 8 and to orbit around the Moon in 1968.

In the second half of the 20th century, advances in the study of Earth and the solar system occurred due to the development of rockets that could send spacecraft beyond Earth. Humans were able to study and observe the Earth from space satellites equipped with scientific instruments. The astronauts landed on the moon and met ancient rocks that reveals much about the early solar system. During this remarkable advance in the history of mankind, human beings also sent ships unmanned space to other planets and moons. Spacecraft have visited every planet except Pluto. The study of other planets and moons have provided new insights on Earth, and the study of the Sun and other stars as it has helped shape new theories about how Earth and the rest of the solar system formed.

As a result of recent space exploration, we now know that Earth is one of the most geologically active of all the planets and moons in the solar system. From Earth is constantly changing. For long periods of time the land is constructed and worn, the oceans are formed and re-formed, and the continents move around, break, and merge.

Life itself contributes to changes in the Earth, especially in how living things can alter the atmosphere. For example, Earth once had the same amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Venus is now, but the earliest forms of life helped eliminate carbon dioxide for millions of years. These life forms also added oxygen to the atmosphere of Earth and made it possible for animal life to evolve on earth.

A variety of scientific fields have expanded our knowledge of Earth, including biogeography, climatology, geology, geophysics, hydrology, meteorology, oceanography, and zoogeography. Together, these fields are known as earth sciences. By studying Earth's atmosphere, its surface, and inside and to study the sun and the rest of the solar system, scientists have learned much about how the Earth came into being, how it changed and why it keeps changing.

II THE EARTH, SOLAR SYSTEM, and the galaxy

The Earth is the third planet from the Sun, after Mercury and Venus. The average distance between Earth and the Sun is 150 million km (93 million miles). The Earth and all other solar system planets rotate or orbit around the Sun due to the force of gravitation. The Earth travels at a speed of about 107,000 km / h (about 67,000 km / h) in its orbit around the sun. All but one of the planets orbit the Sun in the same plane, ie if an imaginary line extending from the center of the Sun to the outer regions of the solar system, orbital trajectories planet crossed the line. The exception is Pluto, which has an eccentric (unusual) in orbit.

Earth's orbital path is not exactly a perfect circle, but is slightly elliptical (oval). For example, the maximum distance from Earth is about 152 million kilometers (about 95 million miles) from the Sun, Earth, minimum distance is about 147 million kilometers (about 91 million miles) from the sun. If the Earth orbiting the Sun in a perfect circle would always be the same distance from the sun.

The solar system, in turn, is part of the Milky Way, a collection of billions of stars held together by gravity. The Milky Way has armlike disks of stars spiral out from its center. The solar system is located in one of these spiral arms, known as the Orion arm, which is about two thirds of the way from the center of the galaxy. In most northern hemisphere, this disc of stars is visible in one night summer as a dense band of light known as the Milky Way.

The Milky Way Our own solar system exists within one of the spiral arms of the disk-shaped galaxy called the Milky Way. This false-color image looks toward the center of the Milky Way, located 30,000 light years away. Star Clusters brightest are visible along the darkest areas of dust and researchers gas.Photo, Inc. / Morton-Milon / Science Source

The Earth is the fifth planet's largest solar system. Its diameter, measured in all of Ecuador, is 12,756 kilometers (7,926 miles). The Earth is not a perfect sphere but is slightly flattened at the poles. Its polar diameter, measured from the North Pole to the South Pole, is somewhat smaller than the equatorial diameter, because of this flattening. Although Earth is the largest of the four the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars that form the inner solar system (planets nearest the Sun), is small compared with giant planets outer solar system, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. For example, the largest planet, Jupiter, has a diameter in Ecuador of 143,000 km (89,000 miles), 11 times larger than Earth. One of the known atmospheric features in Jupiter's Great Red Spot, is so large that three Earths could fit inside.

The Earth has one natural satellite, the Moon. The Moon orbits the Earth, completing one revolution in an elliptical path in 27 days 7 hr 43 min 11.5 sec. La Luna orbits the Earth due to gravity on Earth. However, the Moon also exerts a gravitational force on Earth. Evidence of gravitational influence of the Moon You can see the ocean tides. One popular theory suggests that the Moon separated from Earth more than 4 billion years ago, when a large meteorite or small hit planet Earth.

As the Earth orbits the sun, turn, turn, or, as the axis, an imaginary line that runs between the North Poles and South. The full rotation period is defined as a day and takes 23 hr 56 min 4.1 sec. The period of revolution around the Sun is defined as one year, or 365.2422 days solar, or 365 days 5 hours 48 min 46 sec. From the Earth also moves along with the Milky Way as the galaxy rotates and moves through space. It takes more than 200 million years for stars in the Milky Way to complete one revolution around the center of the galaxy.

Axis of rotation of the Earth is tilted (tilted) 23.5 ° to its plane of revolution around the sun. This axial tilt creates the seasons and the causes of the height of the sun in the sky at noon to increase and decrease as the seasons change. The Northern Hemisphere receives the most energy from the Sun is tilted toward the sun. This approach corresponds to summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the southern hemisphere. The Southern Hemisphere receives maximum power is tilted towards the Sun, which corresponds to the southern hemisphere summer and winter in the northern hemisphere. Fall and spring are produced in between these orientations.

III of the Earth's atmosphere

The atmosphere is a layer of gases different that extends from the surface of the Earth to the exosphere, the outer limit of the atmosphere, about 9,600 km (6,000 miles) above the surface. Near the surface of the Earth, the atmosphere is composed almost entirely of nitrogen (78 percent) and oxygen (21 percent). The remaining 1 percent of atmospheric gases consists of argon (0.9 percent), carbon dioxide (0.03 percent), variable amounts of water vapor and traces of hydrogen, nitrous oxide, ozone, methane, carbon monoxide, helium, neon, krypton and xenon.

A layer of the atmosphere

Divisions of the atmosphere without our atmosphere, there would be no life on Earth. A relatively small endowment, the atmosphere consists of layers of gases that sustain life and provide protection against harmful radiation. © Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

The layers of the atmosphere are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, the thermosphere and exosphere. The troposphere is the layer where weather occurs and extends from the surface to approximately 16 km (about 10 miles) above the level sea in Ecuador. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, which has an upper limit of about 50 kilometers (about 30 miles) above sea level. The layer 50 to 90 km (30 to 60 mi) is called the mesosphere. At an altitude of 90 km, the temperature begins to rise. The layer that begins at this point is called the thermosphere, because of the high Temperatures can reach in this layer (about 1200 ° C, or about 2200 ° F). The region beyond the thermosphere is called the exosphere. The thermosphere exosphere and overlap with another region of the atmosphere called the ionosphere, a layer or layers of ionized air extends almost 60 km (about 50 miles) above the surface the Earth at an altitude of 1,000 kilometers (600 miles) and more.

Earth's atmosphere and how it interacts with the oceans and radiation the Sun are responsible for global climate and weather. The environment plays a key role in supporting life. Almost all life on Earth uses atmospheric oxygen for energy in a process known as cellular respiration, which is essential for life. The atmosphere also helps moderate Earth's climate by trapping the sun's radiation that is reflected from Earth surface. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere act as "greenhouse gases". Like the glass in a greenhouse, trap infrared, or heat, radiation from the sun in the lower atmosphere, allowing the surface of the Earth warm. Without This natural heat radiation escaping into space and Earth would be too cold to support most life forms.

Other gases in the atmosphere are also essential for life. The small amount of ozone found in Earth's stratosphere blocks harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Without the ozone layer, life as we know it could not survive on earth. The Earth's atmosphere is also an important part of a phenomenon known as the cycle water or hydrologic cycle. See also Atmosphere.

B The atmosphere and the water cycle

The water cycle, simply means that the Earth's water is continually recycled between oceans, atmosphere and land. All water that exists on Earth today has been used and reused for billions of years. Very little water has been created or lost during this period of time. The water is constantly moving in the Earth's surface and changing back and forth between ice, liquid water and water vapor.

The water cycle begins when the sun heats the water in the oceans and causes them to evaporate and enter the atmosphere as water vapor. Part of this water vapor falls as precipitation directly back to the oceans, completing a short course. Some of the water vapor, however, comes to Earth, where it can fall as snow or rain. Melting snow or rain enters rivers or lakes on earth. Due to gravity, water river eventually flows back into the oceans. Melting snow or rain can also enter the field. Groundwater can be stored for hundreds or thousands of years, but with time it reaches the surface as springs or small pools known as leakage. Even the snow formed glacier or ice becomes part of the polar caps and stays out of the cycle for thousands of years, time melts or is heated by the sun and turned into water vapor entering the atmosphere and fall again as precipitation. All water that falls on land eventually returns to the ocean, completing the water cycle.

LAND AREA IV

The Earth's surface is the outermost layer of the planet. It includes the hydrosphere, the crust and the biosphere.

The hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is composed of water bodies that cover 71 percent of the Earth's surface. The largest of these is the oceans, which contain more than 97 percent of all water on Earth. Glaciers and ice caps contain little more than 2 percent of Earth's water in the form of solid ice. Only about 0.6 percent is below the surface and groundwaters. However, groundwater is 36 times more abundant than water found in lakes, inland seas, rivers, and in the atmosphere as water vapor. Only the 0.017 percent of all water on Earth is found in lakes and rivers. And only a 0.001 percent is in the atmosphere as water vapor. Most water in the glaciers, lakes, inland seas, rivers and groundwater is fresh and can be used for drinking and agriculture. Dissolved salts make up about 3.5 percent of the water in the oceans, however, making it unsuitable for drinking or agriculture, unless treated to remove salts.

B Crust

The crust is composed continents, other land and river, or plants of the oceans. The dry land surface of Earth is called the continental crust. It is 15 to 75 km (9 to 47 miles) thick. The oceanic crust is thinner than continental crust. Its average thickness is 5 to 10 km (3 to 6 miles). The bark has a definite limit called Mohorovi

The oceanic crust and continental crust differ in the type of rock they contain. There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock, called magma, cools and solidifies. Sedimentary rocks are generally created by the decomposition of igneous rocks. They tend to form layers in the form of small particles of other rocks or mineralized as the remains of dead animals and plants that have merged over time. The animal remains dead plants and occasionally become mineralized sedimentary rocks and are recognizable as fossils. Metamorphic rocks form when sedimentary or igneous rocks are altered by heat and pressure deep underground.

The oceanic crust is composed of dark, dense igneous rocks such as basalt and gabbro. Continental crust consists of lighter-colored, igneous rocks, less dense as granite and diorite. The continental crust also includes metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.

C Biosphere

The biosphere includes all land areas capable of supporting life. The ranges of the biosphere of about 10 km (about 6 miles) in the atmosphere to deep under the ocean floor. For a long time, scientists believed that all life depends on energy from the sun and therefore can only exist when the light the sun penetrated. In the 1970s, however, scientists discovered various forms of life around hydrothermal vents in the bottom of the Pacific Ocean where no sunlight penetrated. They learned that primitive bacteria formed the basis of this community of life and that the bacteria derived from its energy from a process called chemosynthesis not depend on sunlight. Some scientists believe that the biosphere may extend relatively deep into the crust. They have recovered what they believe are primitive bacteria of the holes drilled deep beneath the surface.

D changes to Earth's surface

From the Earth's surface has been constantly changing since the planet formed. Most of these changes have been gradual, taking place over millions of years. However, these gradual changes have resulted in radical changes, involving the formation, erosion, and re-formation of the ridges, the movement of continents, creating large supercontinent breakup of a supercontinent and small continents.

The weathering and erosion derived from the water cycle are among the main factors responsible for changes to the Earth's surface. Another major factor is the movement of Earth's continents and ocean floor and the accumulation of chains mountain, due to a phenomenon known as plate tectonics. Heat is the basis for these changes. Heat within the Earth is believed to be responsible for moving continental mountain building, and creating new seafloor in ocean basins. The sun's heat is responsible for the evaporation of ocean water and precipitation as a result causing erosion. Indeed, the heat inside the Earth helps build the Earth's surface, while the heat of the sun helps to abrade the surface.

Weathering D1

Weathering is the decomposition of rock near the surface of the Earth. Most of the rocks were formed originally in a hot environment, pressure high below the surface, where it had little exposure to water. Once arrived at the rocks of the earth surface however, underwent changes in temperature and exposed to water. When rocks are subjected to this type of surface conditions, bearing minerals tend to change. These changes are the weathering process. There are two types of erosion: physical wear and chemical wear.

Physical weathering involves a loss in the size of rock material. Freezing and thawing of water in the cavities of rocks, for example, Rock divided into small pieces, because water expands when freezes.

Chemical weathering involves a change in the chemical composition of the rock. For example, feldspar, a common mineral in the granite and other rocks, it reacts with water to form clay minerals, resulting in a new substance with totally different than the parent feldspar. Weathering chemistry is of importance to humans, and that creates clay minerals that are important components of soil, the foundation of agriculture. Chemical weathering also Following release of the dissolved forms of sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium and other chemicals in surface water and groundwater. These elements are transported by surface water and groundwater in the sea and are a source of dissolved salts in the sea.

Erosion D2

Glaciers erode glacial erosion the surface of the earth through processes such as abrasion, crushing and fracture of the material in the path of the glacier. Glaciers move by growth or decrease, depending on the weather. Moving glaciers erode and transport large quantities of rock, sand and other particles along their route. The ice road shows here is a moraine formed by a glacier in Switzerland.Photo Researchers, Inc. / Paolo Koch

Erosion is the process that removes loose rocks and the weather, and takes it to a new site. Water, wind, ice and glaciers in combination with the force of gravity can cause erosion.

Erosion by water current is by far the most common process of erosion. It takes place over a long period of time than other forms of erosion. When water from rain or snow melt moves downwards, it can lead to loose rock or soil with it. Erosion by running water forms of family canyons and valleys as V that cuts in most landscapes. The force of the water stream removes loose particles formed by erosion. In the process, ravines and valleys are elongated, extended and deepened. Often, the water overflows the banks of the gullies or watercourses, causing flooding. Each new wave takes away more material to increase the size of the valley. Meanwhile, the weathering material is loosened more and more to make the process continues.

Erosion by glacial ice is less common but can cause the greatest landscape changes in the shortest time possible. Glacial ice is formed in a region where snow does not melt in the spring and summer and accumulates as ice. For the great glaciers of the way, this lack of snowmelt has to occur for a number of years in areas with high rainfall. As ice accumulates and thickens, it flows as a solid mass. As it flows, has an enormous capacity to erode the soil, and even solid rock. Ice is an important factor in the configuration of some landscapes, regions, especially in the mountains. Glacial ice provides much of the spectacular scenery of these regions. Features such as mountain horns (sharp peaks), ar

The wind is a major cause of erosion only in arid (dry) regions. Wind carries sand and dust, which can track even solid rock.

Many factors determine the type and type of erosion that occurs in a given area. The climate of determines the distribution area, the amount and type of precipitation that the area receives and therefore the type and rate of erosion. A zone with an arid climate erodes differently to an area with a humid climate. The elevation of an area also plays a role in determining the potential energy of water. The higher the elevation of the strongest water flow due to gravity. The type of rock in an area (sandstone, granite or slate) can determine the form of valleys and slopes, and depth of streams.

A landscape of geological age, ie how long the current weather conditions and erosion have affected the area determined – their general appearance. Relatively young landscapes tend to be more rugged and angular in appearance. Landscapes of age tend to have more rounded slopes and hills. The oldest landscapes tend to be low with large open river valleys and low, rounded hills. The overall effect of the erosion of an area is at land, the trend is toward reduction of all areas of land to sea level.

D3 Plate Tectonics

Opposing this trend is leveling force responsible for raising mountains and plateaus, and for creating new landmasses. These changes in the Earth's surface produced in the outer solid portion of the Earth, known as the lithosphere. The lithosphere consists of crust and a region known as the upper mantle and is approximately 65 to 100 km (40 to 60 miles) thick. Compared to the Earth's interior, however, this region is relatively thin. The lithosphere is more thin in proportion to the entire Earth that the skin of an apple is the whole apple.

Scientists believe that the lithosphere is divided into a series of plates, or segments. According to the theory of plate tectonics, the plates move around the surface of the Earth for long periods of time. Tectonics comes from the Greek word, tektonik, which means "builder."

According to theory, the lithosphere is divided into small and large plates. Most plates include the Pacific plate, the North American plate, Eurasian plate, the plate from the Antarctica, India and Australia plate and the African plate. Smaller plates include the Cocos Plate, the Nazca plate, the plate of the Philippines and the Caribbean plate. Plate sizes vary greatly. The Cocos plate is 2.000 kilometers (1000 miles) wide, while the Pacific plate is nearly 14,000 km (about 9,000 miles) across.

These plates move in three different ways in relation to each other. They pull apart or away from each other, collide or move against each other, or slide past each other when they move sideways. The movement of these plates helps explain many geological phenomena such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions and mountain building and training of oceans and continents.

i? discontinuity, or simply the Moho. The boundary between the crust of the underlying layer, which is much thicker and is part of interior.êtes of the Earth (sharp edges), glacial lakes and valleys formed in the shape of "U" are the result of glacial erosion. About the Author

My name is MIAN AFAQ TARIQ. I am student of 2nd year in MTB Higher Secondry School. I am living in Sadiqabad(PAKISTAN). My contect numbers are 03342527785 and 03023357300.

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